Influencing Factors on the Fear of Crime in Adults in Their 30s: Focus on Media Literacy, Perceived Neighborhood Disorder and Adult Attachment Styles

Article information

J Korean Acad Psychiatr Ment Health Nurs. 2025;34(1):16-28

Publication date (electronic) : 2025 March 31

doi : https://doi.org/10.12934/jkpmhn.2025.34.1.16

Boyoung Kim¹, Wanju Park^,2

¹Graduate Student, Department of Forensic Nursing, Graduate School of Forensic and Investigative Science, Kyungpook National University, Daegu, Korea

²Professor, College of Nursing, Kyungpook National University, Daegu, Korea

Corresponding author: Park, Wanju College of Nursing, Kyungpook National University, 80, Daehak-ro, Buk-gu, Daegu 41566, Korea. Tel: +82-53-950-4481, Fax: +82-53-255-4977, E-mail: wanjupark@knu.ac.kr

- This article is a revision of the first author's master's thesis Kyungpook National University.

Received 2024 September 10; Revised 2024 December 30; Accepted 2025 March 18.

Abstract

INTRODUCTION

Various crimes occurring in society threaten individuals' lives. Crime is a negative issue in our society that not only directly affects victims but also has widespread and indirect impacts on the general public. One of the harmful effects associated with the occurrence of crime is the fear of crime. Fear of crime refers to a psychological state of concern about being a victim of crime [1] and it can lead to an increase in criminal justice costs as individuals take defensive or evasive measures to prevent victimization [2]. Additionally, fear of crime diminishes individuals' subjective happiness and life satisfaction [3], making research on fear of crime significant from both socioeconomic and forensic perspectives.

The total number of crimes generally showed a decreasing trend following the COVID-19 pandemic but increased to 1,575,007 cases in 2022, a 2.8% increase from the previous year, after the complete lifting of social distancing measures [4]. The Korean Crime Victimization Survey indicated that fear of crime increased in 2022 compared to 2020[5,6]. Additionally, in a 2022 social survey conducted by Statistics Korea involving 36,000 citizens, 39.1% responded that they do not feel safe from crime in society [7]. Although the crime rate is approximately 3.1%, with 3,061.9 incidents per 100,000 people [4], it is evident that even those who are not direct victims of crime are affected by its occurrence.

Fear of crime can be categorized into general fear of crime, which reflects a vague concern about crime victimization, and the specific fear of crime, which relates to worries about becoming a victim of particular types of crimes. Ahn and Choi [1] defined general fear of crime as an emotional dimension, whereas specific fear of crime was defined as a cognitive dimension, including perceptions of the likelihood and consequences of victimization. This study aims to explore the factors influencing both general and specific fear of crime by distinguishing between these two categories.

According to the Korean Crime Victim Survey, adults in their 30s showed the highest increase in general fear of crime and fear of violent crime from 2020 to 2022 compared to other age groups. Fear of crime tends to decrease as age increases, with adults in their 30s reporting the second highest fear of robbery, following those in their teens [5,6]. Although there is active research on the younger population, who generally have relatively high levels of fear of crime, most studies have focused on college students, women in their 20s, or young adults in their 20s and 30s. The increase in fear of crime among adults in their 30s was higher than that in other age groups, suggesting that this group may be more vulnerable to fear of crime. However, there is dearth of studies specifically targeting individuals in their 30s.

Media literacy has emerged as an essential skill as media have become a critical information resource in modern life. In contemporary discussions, there is an emphasis on the need for a qualitatively enhanced media literacy that goes beyond merely using media technically, but also understanding it as a member of society [8]. Critical thinking about media can positively influence media consumption behaviors [9], and media literacy interventions addressing biases in news production and their potential negative consequences have been shown to reduce participants' tendency to select negatively biased news [10]. Violent crimes are covered more negatively in alternative news media (e.g., social media) than in traditional media (e.g., TV), and a higher tendency to use alternative news media is associated with higher anxiety about violent crimes [11]. Therefore, individuals in their 30s who highly use alternative media enhanced media literacy skills.

Perceptions of neighborhood disorder are formed through visible signs of a lack of social control and order in the community. Order refers to peace, safety, and adherence to law, whereas control refers to activities aimed at maintaining order [12]. Neighborhood disorder has been reported to impact residents' mental health, including stress, depression, and anxiety [13,14]. Wilson and Kelling's [13] broken windows theory explains the relationship between perceived disorder and fear of crime and perceived disorder is considered a major cause of increased fear of crime [5,6,15,16].

Adult attachment is an extended concept from attachment theory that influences attachment behaviors and emotional systems [17]. Individuals with secure attachment are effectively regulate their emotions by utilizing internal resources and support from others in stressful situations. Conversely, individuals with insecure adult attachment are vulnerable to stress owing to a lack of efficient support and use maladaptive emotion regulation strategies, leading to increased anxiety [18]. Insecure adult attachment is also known to be associated with negative emotions such as depression [19,20].

Previous studies exploring the factors that influence fear of crime have employed various models to identify differences based on individual characteristics, experiences, environmental factors, and interpersonal traits. Research based on vulnerability models has reported that demographic characteristics such as sex, age, income, and education level, affect fear of crime [2,3]. Studies considering individual experiential factors have found that crime victimization and indirect media exposure are key factors [2,9]. Environmental characteristics, such as social disorder, physical disorder, and street crime, have been identified as variables that influence fear of crime [16,21]. Research on interpersonal traits has examined factors such as interpersonal trust and neighborhood bonds [21,22].

Although literature has reported that media exposure is related to fear of crime [2,5,6], there is a lack of domestic studies directly examining the relationship between media literacy and fear of crime. While adult attachment styles have been reported to be associated with anxiety and negative emotions [18-20], there is a lack of domestic research directly investigating their relationship with fear of crime. Interpersonal factors such as neighborhood ties and interpersonal trust have also been studied, but various findings have been reported [21,22]. This study aims to examine media literacy, perceived neighborhood disorder, and adult attachment styles among adults in their 30s, who are particularly vulnerable to fear of crime. Ultimately, the study seeks to provide an integrated understanding of fear of crime from individual, experiential, environmental, and interpersonal perspectives. It seeks to examine the impact of these factors on fear of crime, provide foundational data for the development of policy strategies to reduce fear of crime and contributing to academic research in this area.

The specific objectives of this study are as follows: First, to assess participants' levels of media literacy, perceived neighborhood disorder, adult attachment style, and fear of crime. Second, to identify the general characteristics and media usage patterns of the participants and examine differences in fear of crime based on these characteristics. Third, to investigate the relationships between participants' media literacy, perceived neighborhood disorder, adult attachment styles, and fear of crime. Fourth, to analyze the factors influencing participants' general fear of crime. Fifth, to analyze the factors influencing participants' specific fear of crime.

METHODS

RESULTS

1. The Level of Study Variables

The skewness values of all study variables were less than 3 in absolute terms, and the kurtosis values were less than 10 in absolute terms, indicating that they met the normal distribution criteria. The mean scores for the subdomains of media literacy were as follows: 4.16±0.58 for self-reflection; 4.10±0.66 for exclusion of harmful media; 4.06±0.69 for social responsibility; 3.65±0.61 for data and information analysis; 3.64±0.57 for selecting good media; 3.54±0.67 for deliberation about implication; and 3.01± 0.78 for public participation. For the subdomains of perceived neighborhood disorder, the mean scores were as follows: 2.81±0.49 for order and 1.72±0.51 for the disorder, indicating that the perceived order was higher than the perceived disorder. The mean total score for attachment avoidance in adult attachment styles was 72.88± 13.77, and for attachment anxiety, it was 58.90±17.94, showing that attachment avoidance was higher than attachment anxiety. In fear of crime, the mean score for general fear of crime was 2.64±1.08, and for specific fear of crime, it was 2.28±0.96 (Table 1).

Table 1.

The Level of Study Variables (N=232)

2. Differences in Fear of Crime According to General and Media Usage Characteristics

The general characteristics of the participants were as follows: 48.7% were aged 30~35 years and 51.3% were aged 35~40 years. In terms of sex, 26.3% were male, and 73.7% were female. Regarding marital status, 45.7% were married or cohabiting, whereas 54.3% were unmarried, including those who were separated. In total, 22.8% lived with their children, while 77.2% did not. The most common monthly income range was between two million and three million KRW, accounting for 25.9%, while the least common was below two million KRW for 12.5%. Education status for most participants was a bachelor's degree (64.7%), and the least had a master's degree (8.6%). Regarding media usage characteristics, the frequency of traditional media usage, such as TV, radio, and newspapers, was the highest for daily use (47.4%) and lowest for nouse (13.8%). Daily social media use was the highest at 62.1% and no-use was the lowest at 11.2%. Online video platforms had the highest daily use (75.4%) and lowest no-use rate (2.2%). Exposure to crime-related content was most frequent for one to three days (49.1%), with the lowest being no-exposure (3.4%).

There was a statistically significant difference in general fear of crime according to general and media usage characteristics by sex (t=-5.46, p<.001). Specific fear of crime according to general and media usage characteristics showed statistically significant differences by sex (t=-3.03, p=.003), monthly income (F=2.86, p=.024), and frequency of online video platform use (F=2.93, p=.035). Bonferroni post-hoc test results showed that specific fear of crime by monthly income did not yield statistically significant results, but using online video platforms four to six days per week was associated with a higher specific fear of crime than using them one to three days per week (Table 2).

Table 2.

Differences in Fear of Crime According to General and Media Usage Characteristics (N=232)

3. Correlations among Study Variables

Participants' general fear of crime showed statistically significant positive correlations with the disorder subdomain of perceived neighborhood disorder (r=.31, p< .001), attachment anxiety in adult attachment styles (r=.26, p<.001), and exclusion of harmful media in media literacy (r=.16, p=.013). It also showed a statistically significant negative correlation with the order subdomain of perceived neighborhood disorder (r=-.14, p=.032). Participants' specific fear of crime had statistically significant positive correlations with the disorder subdomains of perceived neighborhood disorder (r=.47, p<.001), attachment anxiety (r=.44, p<.001), attachment avoidance (r=.15, p=.027), in adult attachment styles, and public participation in media literacy (r=.13, p=.044). Additionally, it showed a statistically significant negative correlation with the order subdomain of perceived neighborhood disorder (r=-.22, p<.001) (Table 3).

Table 3.

Correlations among Study Variables (N=232)

4. Influencing Factors of General Fear of Crime

To identify the factors influencing the general fear of crime, a hierarchical multiple regression analysis was conducted using sex, exclusion of harmful media, perceived neighborhood disorder, and attachment anxiety as independent variables, all of which showed significant differences. Sex was converted into a dummy variable for analysis. Models 1 (F=29.78, p<.001), Model 2 (F=15.91, p<.001), Model 3 (F=15.38, p<.001), and Model 4 (F=14.48, p< .001) were all found to be statistically significant. First, when sex was included in the regression analysis (Model 1), being female (β=.34, p<.001) was identified as a significant factor influencing general fear of crime, with an explanatory power of 11%. Second, when exclusion of harmful media was added to the regression analysis (Model 2), only the female factor (β=.32, p<.001) remained a significant factor influencing general fear of crime, with no change in the explanatory power (ΔR²=.01, F=1.91, p=.168). Third, when perceived neighborhood disorder and neighborhood order were added to the regression analysis (Model 3), being female (β=.30, p<.001) and perceived neighborhood disorder (β=.29, p<.001) were identified as significant factors influencing general fear of crime, and the explanatory power increased by an additional 9%(ΔR²=.09, F=13.16, p<.001). Lastly, when attachment anxiety was added to the regression analysis (Model 4), the most significant variable was being female (β=.29, p<.001), followed by perceived neighborhood disorder (β=.22, p=.002), attachment anxiety (β=.19, p=.003), and exclusion harmful media (β=.14, p=.020). The explanatory power of the regression model increased by an additional 3%(ΔR²=.03, F=8.79, p=.003). The Variance Inflation Factor (VIF) of Model 4 ranged from 1.06 to 1.44, which was below the threshold of 10, and the tolerance values ranged from .70 to .94, exceeding the minimum requirement of .1, indicating no multicollinearity issues. The Durbin-Watson value was 2.09, which is close to the standard value of 2, meeting the independence of residual requirement, thus confirming that the regression model was appropriate (Table 4).

Table 4.

Influencing Factors of General Fear of Crime (N=232)

5. Influencing Factors of Specific Fear of Crime

To identify the factors influencing the specific fear of crime, a hierarchical multiple regression analysis was conducted using sex, monthly income, frequency of video platform use, public participation, perceived neighborhood disorder, and adult attachment styles as independent variables, all of which showed significant differences. Sex, monthly income, and frequency of online video platform use were converted into dummy variables for the analysis. Models 1 (F=3.66, p<.001), Model 2 (F=3.76, p<.001), Model 3 (F=7.91, p<.001), and Model 4 (F=9.54, p<.001) were all found to be statistically significant. First, when sex, monthly income, and frequency of video platform use were included in the regression analysis (Model 1), using online video platforms 4 to 6 days a week (β=.27, p=.002), monthly income of 2 to 3 million KRW (β=.19, p=.016), Monthly income of less than 2 million KRW (β=.17, p=.019) and being female (β=.17, p=.009) were identified as significant factors influencing specific fear of crime, with an explanatory power of 8%. Second, when public participation was added to the regression analysis (Model 2), using online video platforms 4 to 6 days a week (β=.24, p=.007), monthly income of 2 to 3 million KRW (β=.20, p=.011), being female (β=.18, p=.007), monthly income of less than 2 million KRW (β=.18, p=.013) and public participation (β=.13, p=.044) were identified as significant factors influencing specific fear of crime, and the explanatory power increased by an additional 2%(ΔR²=.02, F=4.11, p=.044). Third, when perceived neighborhood disorder and neighborhood order were added to the regression analysis (Model 3), perceived neighborhood disorder (β=.42, p<.001) and being female (β=.17, p=.004) were identified as significant factors influencing specific fear of crime, and the explanatory power increased by an additional 15% (ΔR²=.15, F=23.19, p<.001). Lastly, when adult attachment styles were added to the regression analysis (Model 4), the most significant variable was perceived neighborhood disorder (β=.33, p<.001), followed by attachment anxiety (β=.29, p<.001), being female (β=.17, p=.003), and daily online video platform use (β=.16, p=.045). The explanatory power increased by an additional 8% (ΔR²=.08, F=13.57, p<.001). The Variance Inflation Factor (VIF) of Model 4 ranged from 1.08 to 2.14, which was below the threshold of 10, and the tolerance values ranged from .47 to .93, exceeding the minimum requirement of .1, indicating no multicollinearity issues. The Durbin-Watson value was 2.06, which is close to the standard value of 2, meeting the independence of residual requirement, thus confirming that the regression model was appropriate (Table 5).

Table 5.

Influencing Factors of Specific Fear of Crime (N=232)

DISCUSSION

In their 30s, individuals experience significant life events such as marriage, childbirth, academics, employment, and career changes, while also forming various social relationships. According to Erikson's theory of psychosocial development [25], intimacy is a key developmental task during this period. Intimacy refers to the ability to successfully form and maintain close relationships. Failure to achieve this task can lead to physical and adaptive issues, damage to well-being, and emotional distress [26]. Therefore, it is important for individuals in their 30s to have a civic responsibility as members of society and to establish healthy relationships through appropriate interactions with others. For this reason, this study aimed to identify the factors influencing general and specific fear of crime among adults in their 30s, focusing on media literacy, perceived neighborhood disorder, and adult attachment styles. This study measured general fear of crime, which refers to a vague concern about crime victimization [1], and specific fear of crime, which refers to concerns about specific crimes such as property crime, assault, and sexual violence [15]. General fear of crime can be categorized as an emotional dimension, whereas specific fear of crime can be viewed as a cognitive dimension [1].

The final model of regression analysis revealed four significant factors influencing general fear of crime: being female, perceived neighborhood disorder, attachment anxiety, and exclusion of harmful media. First, being female had the most substantial influence on general fear of crime. This finding aligns with the 2023 Korean Crime Victim Survey, which indicated a sex difference in general fear of crime, with women reporting higher levels of fear than men [5]. This also corresponds with a study by Noh and Shin [22], who identified gender as the most influential factor affecting the general fear of crime. These results suggest that crime prevention policies and systems should incorporate gender-specific approaches. Second, perceived neighborhood disorder was found to affect general fear of crime. This finding is consistent with Park's [27] study, which confirmed a positive correlation between community disorder and general fear of crime, and Sim's [16] research on factors influencing fear of crime among single women, where social and physical disorders were found to impact general fear of crime. Improving the physical environment of neighborhoods and enhancing social control are recommended strategies for reducing residents' fear of crime. Third, attachment anxiety was identified as a factor influencing general fear of crime. Although direct comparisons are limited owing to the scarcity of studies examining differences in general fear of crime according to adult attachment styles, this result aligns with the findings of Lee and Kim [18], who reported that higher levels of insecure attachment were associated with increased anxiety. Fourth, the exclusion of harmful media was identified as a factor influencing general fear of crime. There is a lack of research directly exploring the impact of the tendency to reject harmful media on fear of crime, which limits direct comparisons. However, Choi's study [28] suggests that confirmation bias and cognitive dissonance may drive extreme behavior, such as selectively exposing oneself to or excluding certain information. Additionally, the study highlights that individuals with higher news media literacy tend to perceive greater uncertainty in information, which can subsequently lead to the development of negative emotions. However, research on the impact of media literacy on fear of crime remains limited. Furthermore, while the inclusion of factors related to rejecting harmful media in Model 2 did not significantly alter the regression analysis, it emerged as a significant influencing factor only in Model 4. This suggests limitations in interpreting this factor as having an independent effect. Therefore, further research on this topic is needed.

The analysis identified four significant factors influencing specific fear of crime: perceived neighborhood disorder, attachment anxiety, being female, and daily online video platform use. First, perceived neighborhood disorder was found to influence specific fear of crime, consistent with Park's study [27], which established a positive correlation between community disorder and specific fear of crime, and Sim's study [16], which found that increased social disorder affects specific fear of crime among single female households. It is believed that a higher perception of community disorder leads to a heightened awareness of the potential for victimization, thus increasing the specific fear of crime. Second, attachment anxiety was identified as a factor influencing specific fear of crime. Although there are limited studies that directly compare the influence of adult attachment styles on specific fear of crime, Wei et al.[19] found that attachment anxiety leads to emotional hypersensitivity, which affects anxiety levels. Additionally, Lee and Yang [20] reported that attachment anxiety mediates maladaptive cognitive-emotional regulation strategies, thereby affecting psychological distress. Emotions can be regulated through cognitive processes. According to Mikuliner et al. [29], individuals with high attachment anxiety tend to focus excessively on and perceive their negative thoughts and emotions in stressful situations, exhibiting a ruminative coping style. Thus, the results of this study suggest that individuals with high attachment anxiety may perceive minor threats as exaggerated, leading to an increased specific fear of crime. Third, being female was identified as a factor influencing a specific fear of crime. The 2023 Korean Crime Victim Survey reported gender differences in the specific fear of crime, with women showing higher levels of fear than men [5]. Moreover, Kim et al.[2] found that being female was a major factor influencing fear of interpersonal and property crimes. This may be owing to the sociologically vulnerable status of women, who perceive a higher risk of victimization than men. Fourth, daily video platform use was found to influence specific fear of crime. This aligns with the findings of Bergan and Lee [9], who reported that exposure to terrorism news via the media increases fear of terrorism, and Kim and Lee [2], who found that increased exposure to media on property and interpersonal crimes is associated with increased fear of these crimes. However, there are limitations in directly comparing these findings with those of the present study owing to differences in the media types used across the studies. Although this study examined the differences in fear of crime according to the frequency of traditional media, social media, and crimerelated news usage, no significant results were found, suggesting a need for further research.

This study is significant as it attempts to examine the relationship between media literacy, which is considered an essential competency in modern society, and fear of crime, as well as to confirm that higher levels of attachment anxiety correlate with increased fear of crime. Additionally, Han [30] analyzed trends in domestic research on fear of crime, noting that many studies rely on data from Korean Crime Victim Survey, which can lead to standardized trends and limit the diversity of research. Recognizing that a large proportion of domestic studies on fear of crime rely on secondary data analysis, which constrains the exploration of new influencing factors, this study investigated the impact of media literacy and adult attachment styles on fear of crime, which have been under-researched.

However, this study has some limitations, including the overrepresentation of female participants, which restricts the generalizability of the findings to a broader population of adults in their 30s. Furthermore, there is a lack of studies that assess media literacy among adults in their 30s using the media literacy scale employed in this study. Media literacy can be categorized in various ways, depending on the skills and concepts being measured, presenting challenges in comparative analysis. Additionally, this study utilized the crime fear scale from the 2018 Korean Crime Victim Survey, which does not include measures of fear of harassment or digital sexual crimes recently added to the survey. Future research should incorporate these aspects to provide a more comprehensive measure of specific fear of crime.

The findings of this study can be practically applied to reduce the fear of crime among citizens in their 30s, a group vulnerable to fear of crime. To mitigate the general fear of crime among in their 30s, it is important to recognize that women are sociologically vulnerable and implement strategies that maintain physical order and strengthen social control in their neighborhoods. To reduce specific fear of crime among in their 30s, strategies should focus not only on improving neighborhood disorder but also on positively transforming the negative self-representations of individuals with high levels of attachment anxiety.

High levels of fear of crime can adversely affect the socio-economic landscape, reduce individuals' quality of life, and increase depressive symptoms. Therefore, community mental health nurses responsible for the mental health of local residents must be aware of the negative impacts of fear of crime and maintain ongoing efforts to reduce it. Additionally, a multidimensional approach to the various factors influencing fear of crime is essential as these approaches provide the foundation for future public safety policies. Consequently, there is a need for active research on the fear of crime.

CONCLUSION

This descriptive survey aimed to identify the effects of media literacy, neighborhood disorder perception, and adult attachment styles on the general and specific fear of crime among adults in their 30s, providing foundational data for policing policies and academic research. The results indicated that the factors influencing a general fear of crime, characterized by vague concerns about victimization, were female, perceived neighborhood disorder, and attachment anxiety, exclusion of harmful media, in that order. For specific fear of crime, which involves the perceived likelihood of victimization for particular crimes, the influencing factors were perceived neighborhood disorder, attachment anxiety, female, and the daily use of video platforms, in that order. The factors influencing general fear of crime and specific fear of crime were found to differ. Therefore, strategies to reduce fear of crime among in their 30s, a group vulnerable to fear of crime should prioritize interventions accordingly. To reduce the general fear of crime among individuals in their 30s, which is categorized as an emotional dimension, it is crucial to develop promotional strategies that can alleviate anxiety in women concerned about victimization by fostering a sense of safety and improving the physical and social disorder in their neighborhoods. To address the specific fear of crime among individuals in their 30s, categorized as a cognitive dimension, the most necessary interventions involve improving the physical and social environments of high-risk crime areas to maintain order and positively transforming the negative self-expression of individuals with high levels of attachment anxiety. Future developments in policing policies should take a multidimensional approach to the various significant factors identified in this study. Continuous research on fear of crime is essential to create a safer society. Community mental health nurses should also increase their focus on ensuring that citizens feel safe in their communities.

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