Rothbaum (2001) |
USA |
n-RCT |
9 |
51.00±3.16 |
9 males |
Vietnam veterans with PTSD (DSM-IV criteria) |
5~7 weeks |
Twice weekly |
90-minutes/8~16 sessions |
Individual sessions |
Waitlist |
PC, HMD, motion tracker, headphones, microphone, vibration chair, joystick |
Virtual Vietnam environments |
Pre-treatment, post-treatment, 3-month follow-up, 6-month follow-up |
CAPS, CES-D, SCID, IES, BDI, CGI-I, PGI-I |
|
(a) a virtual Huey helicopter flying over a virtual Vietnam |
|
(b) a clearing surrounded by jungle |
Ready (2006) |
USA |
Single-group trials |
14 |
N/A |
14 males |
Vietnam veterans with PTSD (DSM-IV criteria) |
N/A |
Weekly |
90-minutes/8~20 sessions |
Individual and group sessions |
N/A |
HMD |
Virtual Vietnam environments |
Pre-treatment, post-treatment, 3-month follow-up, 6-month follow-up |
CAPS, IES, BDI, SUDS |
|
(a) first open trial=9, |
|
(a) a virtual Huey helicopter flying over a virtual Vietnam |
|
(b) second open trial=5 |
|
(b) a clearing surrounded by jungle |
Difede (2007) |
USA |
n-RCT |
E: 13 |
E: 40.92±9.90 |
18 males, 3 females |
Civilians and disaster workers directly exposed to the WTC attacks |
≥6 weeks |
Weekly |
75-minutes / 7.5±3.6 (6~13) sessions, maximum of 14 sessions |
Individual sessions |
Waitlist |
HMD, motion tracker |
Vega VR software |
Pre-treatment, post-treatment, 6-month follow-up |
CAPS, SCID, PCL, BDI, BSI-GSI, SUDS, THQ |
C: 8 |
C: 45.13±7.14 |
|
(a) a jet flies over the WTC towers, but doesn't crash; normal New York City street sounds |
|
|
(b) a jet flies over, hits building, but no explosion |
|
(c) a jet flies over, crashes with explosion, but no sound effects |
|
(d) a jet flies over, crashes with explosion, with explosion sound effects |
|
(e) burning and smoking building (with hole where jet crashed), no screaming |
|
(f) burning and smoking building (with hole where jet crashed), screaming |
|
(g) burning and smoking building (with hole where jet crashed), screaming, and people jumping |
|
(h) second jet crashes into second tower with explosion and sound effects |
|
(i) second tower collapses with dust cloud |
|
(j) first tower collapses with dust cloud |
|
(k) the full sequence |
Josman (2008) |
Israel |
Single-group trials |
30 |
40.20±13.1 (23~63) |
12 males, 18 females |
Simulation of a terrorist bus-bombing attack on healthy people |
N/A |
Weekly |
90~120 minutes / 10 sessions |
Individual and group sessions |
N/A |
HMD, earphones, motion tracker |
BusWorld software |
Pre-treatment, post-treatment |
PDS, SUDS |
|
(a) level 1: the participant views the quiet street scene in the absence of any action. the events are viewed from an urban Israeli sidewalk, near a café, across the street from a bus stop |
|
(b) level 2: a bus appears and approaches the bus stop, but there is no explosion |
|
(c) level 3: the bus arrives at the bus stop and explodes; the bus is seen to be burning, there is smoke and shattered glass on the street, but there are no accompanying sound effects |
|
(d) level 4: is essentially the same as level 3, except with the addition of sounds of the bus exploding, people screaming and crying, as well as police sirens and reflections of flashing police-car lights (police car is not visible to participants) |
Wood (2009) |
USA |
Single-group trials |
12 |
37.33±8.15 (25~49) |
12 males |
Combat veterans with PTSD (DSM-IV-TR criteria) |
>10 weeks |
Once or twice a week |
90~100 minutes/10 sessions |
Individual sessions |
N/A |
2 computers, VR goggles with headphones, control panel, physiological monitoring (skin conductance, finger temperature, respiration rate, heart rate), chair that could rotate 360 degrees |
Virtual baghdad software |
Pre-treatment, post-treatment |
PCL-M, BAI, PHQ-9 |
Rizzo (2009) |
USA |
n-RCT |
20 |
28.00 (21~51) |
19 males, 1 female |
Active duty service members with PTSD who redeployed from Iraq |
>5 weeks |
Twice a week |
90~120 minutes/10 sessions |
Individual sessions |
Waitlist |
HMD, 3D audio, vibrotactile and olfactory stimulator, physiological monitoring (HR, GSR, respiration) |
Virtual Iraq/ Afghanistan software: including middle-eastern themed city and desert road environments |
Pre-treatment, post-treatment, 3-month follow-up |
PCL-M, BAI, PHQ-9, SUDS |
Gamito (2009) |
Portugal |
RCT |
5 (only reported about VR group) |
N/A |
N/A |
Portuguese war veterans with PTSD (DSM-IV criteria) |
N/A |
N/A |
N/A /5 sessions |
Individual sessions |
PE |
HMD |
Ambush, mortar blasting, waiting for injured rescue |
Pre-treatment, during treatment (5th session) |
IES-R, SCL-90~R, ITC-SOPI |
Rizzo (2010) |
USA |
Single-group trials |
20 |
28.00 (21~51) |
19 males, 1 female |
Active duty service members with PTSD who redeployed from Iraq |
>5 weeks |
Twice a week |
90~120 minutes/10 sessions |
Individual sessions |
N/A |
2 computers, HMD, olfactory stimulation, tactile stimulation, audio-tactile sound, physiological monitoring (HR, GSR, respiration) |
Virtual Iraq software: scents include burning rubber, cordite, garbage, body odor, smoke, diesel fuel, Iraq food spices, gunpowder |
Pre-treatment, post-treatment (at 3,5,7,9,10 sessions, and 1week later), 3-month follow-up |
PCL-M, BAI, PHQ-9 (Depression), SUDS |
Roy (2010) |
USA |
RCT |
29 |
34.00 (24~59) |
26 males, 3 females |
Active duty service members who have been deployed to Iraq or Afghanistan |
≥6 weeks |
N/A |
90-minutes/≥12 sessions |
Individual sessions |
PE |
3 computers, vibration platform, smell machine, game-type hand controller |
Virtual Iraq software: scents include burning rubber, cordite, garbage, body odor, smoke, diesel fuel, Iraqi food spices, gunpowder |
Pre-treatment, during treatment (2-week intervals), post-treatment, 12-week follow-up (4-week intervals) |
Defense and veterans brain injury center brief questionnaire for TBI, CAPS, PCL-M, CAGE, BDI, AUDIT-C, SF-36, WHODAS-II, SCID, fMRI |
Ready (2010) |
USA |
RCT |
E: 5 |
E: 57.00±3.02 (53~61) |
9 males |
Vietnam veterans with PTSD (DSM-IV criteria) |
N/A |
N/A |
90-minutes/10 sessions |
Individual sessions |
PCT |
N/A |
Virtual Vietnam environments |
Pre-treatment, post-treatment, 6-month follow-up |
SCID (for screening), CAPS, BDI |
C: 4 |
C: 58.00±3.05 (55~62) |
|
(a) a virtual Huey helicopter flying over a virtual Vietnam |
|
(b) a clearing surrounded by jungle |
Gamito (2010) |
Portugal |
RCT |
E1: 4 |
63.50±4.43 |
9 males |
Portuguese war veterans with PTSD (DSM-IV-TR criteria) |
N/A |
N/A |
N/A /12 sessions |
N/A |
EI, Waitlis t |
HMD |
Ambush, mortar blasting, waiting for injured rescue |
Pre-treatment, during-treatment (5th session), post-treatment |
IES-R, SCL-90~R, CAPS, BDI |
E2: 2 |
C: 3 |
Botella (2010) |
Spain |
RCT |
E: 5 |
N/A (18~65) |
8 males, 2 females |
Diverse trauma PTSD (DSM-IV-TR criteria) |
9~12 weeks |
weekly |
90-minutes/9~12 sessions |
Individual sessions |
CBT |
2 PCs, large projection screen, 2 projectors, wireless pad, speaker system |
EMMA's World software |
Pre-treatment, post-treatment |
CAPS, DTS, PTCI |
C: 5 |
McLay (2010) |
USA |
n-RCT |
E: 6 |
E: 26.50 (21~37) |
10 males |
Active duty service members who had sought treatment at the Combat Stress Clinic in Iraq |
5~12 weeks |
Once or twice a week |
N/A/E: 6.5 sessions (3~10) C: 9 sessions (5~16) |
Individual sessions |
ET |
laptop, biofeedback system, portable biofeedback units, HMD, joystick controller |
Virtual Iraq software was donated to the US Navy by Virtual reality medical center; base camp, battelfield, Iraqi marketplace, military convoy coming uder attack |
Pre-treatment, post-treatment |
PCL-M, BAI, PHQ-9 |
C: 4 |
C: 24.50 (22~29) |
McLay (2011) |
USA |
RCT |
E: 10 |
E: 28.00 (22~43) |
E: 9 males, 1 female |
Active duty Service Members with Combat Related PTSD |
≤10 weeks |
Once or twice a week |
N/A /14 sessions |
Individual sessions |
TAU |
HMD, joystick controller, |
Virtual Iraq software was donated to the US Navy by Virtual reality medical center; base camp, battelfield, Iraqi marketplace, military convoy coming uder attack |
Pre-treatment, post-treatment, 10~46 weeks to post-assessment |
CAPS |
C: 10 |
C: 28.80 (21~45) |
C: 10 males |
McLay (2012) |
USA |
n-RCT |
C1: 20 |
C1: 28.10±8.38 (20~51) |
C1: 19 males |
Active duty service members with PTSD from deployments to Iraq or Afghanistan |
10 weeks |
Twice weekly |
90~100 minutes/10.30±2. 45 (4~15) sessions |
Individual sessions |
Left treatm ent |
2 computers, viusal and auditory displays (HMD), VR goggles, headphones, control panel |
Virtual Iraq/Afghanistan software: including middle-eastern themed city and desert road environments |
Pre-treatment, post-treatment, 3-months follow-up, clinical observation in dropouts |
PCL-M, PHQ-9, BAI |
D: 22 |
D: 23.73±2.69 (20~31) |
D: 22 males |
McLay (2014) |
USA |
n-RCT |
15 |
34.07 (25~49) |
14 males |
Active duty service members with PTSD from deployments to Iraq or Afghanistan |
10 weeks |
Weekly or biweekly |
90 minutes/fixed number of sessions (5, 10, 15, or 20) |
Individual sessions |
TAU |
2 computers, viusal and auditory displays (HMD), VR goggles, headphones, control panel |
Virtual Iraq/Afghanistan software: including middle-eastern themed city and desert road environments |
Pre-treatment, post-treatment |
CAPS, PHQ-9, PCL-M, ARES, BAI, SRTT, PRTT |
Norr (2018) |
USA |
RCT |
E: 108 |
N/A |
156 males, 6 females |
Active duty service members with PTSD from deployments to Iraq or Afghanistan (DSM-IV-TR criteria) |
N/A |
N/A |
90~120 minutes /N/A |
Individual sessions |
PE |
HMD, VR peripherals |
Virtual Iraq/Afghanistan software: including middle-eastern themed city and desert road environments |
Baseline, mid-treatment (after 5 treatment sessions), post-treatment |
BDI-II, CAPS, SI |
C: 54 |
Schewizer (2018) |
Germany |
RCT |
E: 66 |
E: 22.38±4.14 |
28 males, 99 females |
Healthy people (but exposed to a virtual trauma event) |
N/A |
N/A |
5 minutes/N/A |
Individual sessions |
SDI |
2 color displays of HMD, 3D olfactorily, movement tracker, joystick, Varioport II Systems (recording the peripheral physiological parameters) |
Modified video-game simulator (Valve's Source Engine) underground parking lot, the car for the experimental conditions |
Pre-treatment, post-treatment, one week later follow-up |
BSI-GSI, BDI-S, BAI, SUIS, IPQ, IMQ, subjective emotional arousal |
C: 61 |
C: 23.44±7.37 |
Reger (2019) |
USA |
RCT |
E: 49 |
E: 29.76±6.50 |
91 males, 5 females |
Active duty service members with PTSD from deployments to Iraq or Afghanistan (DSM-IV- criteria) |
5 weeks |
N/A |
90~120 minutes/10 sessions |
Individual sessions |
PE |
Desktop computer, HMD, gaming joystick or a mini joystick, ear headphones, digital microphone, EnviroScent Scent Palette (scents were available including garbage, body odor, gunpowder, burnt rubber, etc) |
Virtual Iraq/Afghanistan software: including middle-eastern themed city and desert road environments |
Pre-treatment, post-treatment |
SUDS, CAPS |
C: 47 |
C: 30.74±6.97 |
Bang (2020) |
Republic of Korea |
Single-group trials |
167 |
≤30: 79 |
132 males, 35 females |
Fire-fighting officer |
N/A |
Once |
30~40 minutes/1 session |
Individual sessions |
N/A |
HMD (with EEG sensor and PPG sensor) |
Mental Health Diagnosis and Healing Service System Using VR and AR (Ministry of Trade, Industry and Energy) |
Pre-treatment, post-treatment |
PDS, job stress scale, ego-resiliency scale, SCL-90-R, program satisfaction, PPG, EEG |
31~40: 52 |
≥41: 36 |